“Urdu hai jiska naam hamein jaante hain Daagh, Saare jahan mein dhoom hamari zabaan ki hai…”
~ Daagh Dehlvi
Urdu, written in the graceful Nastaʿlīq script, is an Indo-Aryan language rooted deeply in the cultural and historical landscape of South Asia. It is the national language and lingua franca of Pakistan, and a recognized language in India under the Eighth Schedule of the Constitution. Urdu also has cultural and historical presence in Nepal, South Africa, Afghanistan, and Bangladesh.
Linguistic Profile
• Pronunciation: [Urduː]
• Language Family: Indo-European → Indo-Iranian → Indo-Aryan → Hindustani
• Writing Systems:
o Perso-Arabic (Urdu script – Nastaʿlīq)
o Roman Urdu (unofficial)
o Urdu Braille
o Hebrew (historical Judeo-Urdu)
• Signed Forms:
o Indo-Pakistani Sign Language
o Signed Urdu
• Dialects: Deccani, Dhakaiya, Judeo-Urdu
• Speakers:
o Native: ~70 million
o L2 Speakers: ~160 million
o Total: ~230 million
Etymology & Early Usage
The term Urdu was first used by poet Ghulam Hamadani Mushafi around 1780. Derived from the Turkic word Ordu (meaning “army”), the language’s full historical name was Zaban-e-Urdu-e-Mualla (Language of the Exalted Camp). Earlier names included Hindavi, Hindi, Dehlavi, Lahori, Dihlawi, Lashkari, and Rekhta.
Origins and Literary Foundations
Urdu evolved in the 12th to 16th centuries through the fusion of local Indian dialects (especially Khariboli) with Persian, Arabic, and Turkic vocabulary resulting in a cultural blend known as Ganga-Jamuni Tehzeeb. The earliest form of Urdu literature emerged from the works of Amir Khusrau in the 13th century. Dakhini Urdu developed in the Deccan and incorporated local elements from Marathi and Telugu.
Mughal Era Influence
The Delhi Sultanate and the Mughal Empire established Persian as the court language, further enriching Hindustani with Persian vocabulary. By Aurangzeb’s reign, the language around Delhi became known as Zaban-e-Urdu, influenced by military camps (ordu). During this period, Hindvi (early Urdu) was widely used and written in Persian script.
European accounts from the 17th century, such as those by John Ovington and Antoine Polier, referred to Urdu as “Moors” or “Moorish jargon,” associating it with Muslim identity.
Colonial Shift & Standardization
British colonial officers initially called the language “Moors” but later adopted the term Hindustani. John Gilchrist was instrumental in its study and standardization. By 1837, Urdu, along with English, replaced Persian as the official language in northern India.
The late 19th-century Hindi–Urdu controversy intensified the divide:
• Urdu (Perso-Arabic script) was associated with Muslims.
• Hindi (Devanagari script) became linked with Hindus.
Urdu began to be promoted among Muslims as a symbol of identity, particularly through madrasas and government schools. Meanwhile, the Devanagari script for Hindi was championed by groups like the Arya Samaj.
Post-Independence Developments
In Pakistan
Urdu was declared the sole national language in 1973, intended to unify the country. However, it faced resistance from Bengali (in East Pakistan) and competition from English. Despite initial efforts by leaders like General Zia-ul-Haq to Urduise society, English retained dominance in administration, law, and education.
In India
Urdu, once widespread, saw decline due to lack of institutional support and its association with Pakistan. Urdu speakers in India increasingly shifted to Hindi or English for better socio-economic prospects. Still, Urdu thrives in popular culture Bollywood, music, and poetry even as knowledge of its script and literature declines.
Modern Challenges and Decline
Urdu today faces challenges across both India and Pakistan:
• Decrease in native speakers and formal education.
• Decline in Urdu publications and script literacy.
• Loss of socio-economic utility and institutional support.
• Political and cultural associations shaping its perception.
While writers like Gulzar assert Urdu’s vibrancy, linguists and critics point to its marginalization, especially in education and governance.
Script and Calligraphy
Urdu uses the Nastaʿlīq script, known for its aesthetic beauty but difficult for typesetting. Traditionally handwritten by skilled kātibs, it remains a hallmark of Urdu’s literary heritage. Newspapers like The Musalman in Chennai are still hand-written today.
Cultural Legacy
Despite modern struggles, Urdu remains a symbol of poetic elegance, philosophical depth, and South Asian syncretism. Its contributions to literature, film, and music are irreplaceable. The language’s future depends on renewed educational efforts, script preservation, and cultural revival.
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